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Notes  on 
ew  Testament  Grammar 


BURTON 


DATE  SLIP 


Notes  on  New  Testament  Grammar 


Notes  on 
New  Testament  Grammar 

BY  ERNEST  DEWITT  BURTON 

PROFESSOR    OF    NEW    TESTAMENT    LITERATURE    AND    INTERPRETATION 
IN    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    CHICAGO 


REVISED  EDITION 


WITHDRAWN  FROM 
UNIVERSITY  OF  REDLANDS  LIBRARY 


CHICAGO 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
1904 


8- 


COPYRIGHT    1904 
By  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

The  following  pages  have  been  prepared  and  printed  for 
the  use  of  classes  entering,  with  a  knowledge  of  classical 
Greek,  upon  the  study  of  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament. 
They  are  not  intended  to  enable  the  student  to  dispense  with 
the  published  Grammars,  but  aim  simply  to  emphasize,  by 
thus  singling  them  out,  certain  points  to  which  experience  has 
shown  it  is  desirable  for  the  student  to  give  special  attention 
at  the  beginning  of  his  study  of  New  Testament  Greek.  The 
only  proportion  observed  is  that  suggested  by  practical  needs. 
The  relatively  full  treatment  of  the  article,  for  example,  finds 
its  occasion  in  the  unsatisfactory  treatment  of  this  subject  in 
the  Grammars  and  the  necessity  of  some  knowledge  of  it  as 
a  basis  for  New  Testament  interpretation.  Under  the  syntax 
of  the  verb  only  Voice  is  treated  of,  with  the  thought  that 
those  who  use  this  pamphlet  will  probably  have  access  to  the 
author's  work  on  the  Moods  and  Tenses  in  New  Testament 
Greek. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

A.  HISTORICAL    RELATION    OF  NEW   TESTAMENT   GREEK 

TO  CLASSICAL  GREEK        -  -       n 

B.  NEW  TESTAMENT  FORMS  17 

C.  NEW  TESTAMENT  SYNTAX     -  22 


LIST    OF    WORKS    AND    AUTHORS    REFERRED   TO 
BY  ABBREVIATION 

B,  =  Alexander   Buttmann,    A    Grammar   of  -the    New    Testament   Greek. 

Translated  by  J.  H.  Thayer.     Andover,  1873. 
j?.MT.=  Ernest  DeWitt  Burton,   Syntax    of   the    Moods    and   Tenses    in 

New  Testament  Greek.     Chicago,  1893. 
BL=  F.  Blass,  Grammar  of  New  Testament  Greek.      Translated  by  Henry 

St.  John  Thackeray.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1898. 

G.=  W.  W.  Goodwin,  A  Greek  Grammar.     Revised  edition.     Boston,  1892. 
HA.  — James  Hadley,  A  Greek  Grammar  for  Schoolsand  Colleges.    Revised 

by  F.  D.  Allen.     New  York,  1884. 
WM.—  G.  B.  Winer,  A  Treatise  on  the  Grammar  of  New  Testament  Greek. 

Translated  by  W.  F.  Moulton.     Third  edition.     Edinburgh,  1882. 
IVS.=  G,  B.    Winer,   Grammatik    des    neutestamentlichen    Sprachidioms. 

Achte  Auflage,  neubearbeitet  von  Paul  Wilh.  Schmiedel.    Gottingen, 

1894 — (in  process  of  publication). 

W.=  Winer,  the  above-named  work  in  various  editions. 
WH.—  Westcott  &  Hort,  The  New  Testament  in  the  Original  Greek,  the 

text  revised  by  B.  F.  Westcott  and  F.  J.   A.  Hort.      Two  volumes. 

Cambridge  and  New  York,  1881. 
Ttsc/i.=  Constantius   Tischendorf,  Novum  Testamentum    Graece.      Eighth 

edition.     Two  volumes.     Leipzig,  1869-72. 
Greg.=  Caspar  Rene    Gregory,  Prolegomena  to  the  above.      Three  parts. 

Leipzig,  1884—94. 
T/i.=J.  H.   Thayer,  A    Greek-English    Lexicon    of   the   New  Testament. 

Being  Grimm's  Wilke's  Clavis  Novi  Testament},  translated,  revised, 

and  enlarged.     New  York,  1886. 


A.     HISTORICAL  RELATION  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT 
GREEK  TO   CLASSICAL  GREEK 

1.  THE  PRE-ARISTOTELIAN  DIALECTS. —  The  classical  stu- 
dent is  familiar  with  the  fact  that  between  the  eighth  and  the 
fourth    century  B.   C.  the  Greek   language   was   written    and 
spoken   in    various    dialects    usually   distinguished   as   ^Eolic 
(Alcceus  and   Sappho,  600  B.  C.),  Doric  (Pindar,  470  B.  C. ; 
Theocritus,  270  B.  C.),  Old  Ionic  or  Epic  (Homer  and  Hesiod, 
before   700  B.  C.),  New   Ionic  (Herodotus  and  Hippocrates, 
fifth  century  B.  C.),  and  Attic  (Xenophon,  Plato,  etal.).     See 
Introduction  to  HA.  and  to  G.     For  a  different  classification 
see  Brvgmann,  Griechische  Grammatik,  pp.  16-21 ;  Jannans, 
Historical  Greek  Grammar,  pp.  i,  2. 

In  the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great  the  Attic  had  become 
the  prevalent  dialect,  though  the  others  had  not  wholly  ceased 
to  be  used.  From  this  point  we  may  conveniently  trace  the 
rise  of  the  later  Greek  dialects  and  idioms,  as  distinguished 
from  the  earlier  classical  dialects  mentioned  above. 

2.  THE  COMMON  DIALECT. —  As  the  Attic  Dialect  became, 
partly  as  the  result  of  the  conquest  made  by  Alexander,  more 
widely  prevalent,  it  suffered  a  consequent  modification  by  the 
introduction  of  elements  from  the  other  dialects  and  of  pro- 
vincialisms.    This   modified   form   of  the  Attic,  dating   from 
about  the  time  of  Aristotle  (384-321   B.  C.;  cf.  Alexander's 
date,  356-323),  is  known  as  17  KOLVTJ  SiaAeK-ros,  the  Common  Dia- 
lect.    It  is  also  sometimes  spoken  of  as  Hellenic  Greek;   also 
Later,  or  Post-Aristotelian,  Greek  ;  see  Th.,  Appendix ;  and  by 
Deissmann, Thumb,  and  Blass  is  called  Hellenistic  Greek;  see 
§  4,  Remark.     Aristotle  marks    the    transition   from  Attic  to 
Common    Greek.      Polybius,    140    B.    C.;    Strabo,    i    A.    D.; 
Plutarch,  TOO  A.  D.,  are  writers   of  the   Common  Dialect,  as 

ii 


iz        NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR 

also  Arrian,    Dio    Cassius,    Dionysius   of    Halicarnassus,  and 
Lucian. 

REMARK. —  Some  writers  apply  the  term  "Common  Dialect"  and 
KOiv-f]  only  to  the  common  literary  language  of  the  Post-Aristotelian  period, 
excluding,  on  the  one  side,  the  colloquial  speech  and,  on  the  other,  the 
language  of  those  writers  who  endeavored  to  reproduce  the  Attic  of  the 
classic  period.  So,  for  example,  Winer-Schmiedel  and  Kennedy.  Accord- 
ing to  this  usage,  Arrian,  JDionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  Lucian,  and  perhaps 
Dio  Cassius  should  be  called  "Atticists"  rather  than  writers  of  the  KOIVT?/. 
The  term  is  employed  in  these  pages,  however,  in  its  broader  sense,  as 
denoting  the  Greek  of  the  post-Aristotelian  period,  whether  written  or 
spoken,  and  whether  used  with  or  without  effort  to  conserve  the  niceties  of 
the  Attic  speech.  See  Deissmann  in  Hmick,  Kealencyclopadie,  Vol.  VII, 
p.  630. 

3.  THE  ALEXANDRIAN  DIALECT.— Of  the  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct types   of  the  Koivrj  used   in  various  parts  of  the  Greek- 
speaking  world,  none  is  of  more  importance  for  the  student  of 
the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  than  that  used  in  Alexandria. 
Of  this  dialect  in  its  colloquial  form  there  have  been  preserved 
to  us  various  fragmentary  remains,  such  as  the  Rosetta  Stone, 
and  the  Egyptian  Papyri,  of  which  so  many  have  been  discov- 
ered in  recent  years.     (See  WS.,  §  3,  i,  f.n.  5.)     Of  the  Alex- 
andrian literary  style,  as  it  was  written  by  cultured  Hellenists, 
2,  3,  4  Maccabees,  though  of  Jewish  authorship,  are   said   by 
Swete  (Int.  to  O.  T.  in  Greek,  p.  312)  to  be  pure  examples. 

REMARK. —  Winer,  Swete,  and  Kennedy,  use  the  term  "Alexandrian 
Dialect  "of  the  colloquial  Greek  of  Alexandria.  Deissmann  uses  the  term 
" Egypto- Alexandrian "  or  "  Egyptian"  of  the  Greek  written  or  spoken  in 
Alexandria  and  other  parts  of  Egypt.  The  fact  of  local  peculiarities  of  the 
language  is  sometimes  ignored  and  the  name  '*  Alexandrian  "  given  to  the 
entire  language  which  is  here  called  the  Common  Dialect.  So,  <?.  g.,  by 
Schaff.  The  term  "Alexandrian,"  as  used  above,  includes  both  the  literary 
and  spoken  language. 

4.  THE  GREEK  USED  BY  GREEK-SPEAKING  JEWS  IN  NEW 
TESTAMENT  TIMES. —  Broadly  speaking,  this  was  the  KOLVYJ.   Yet, 


NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR         13 

since  the  Jews  learned  Greek  chiefly  as  a  spoken  language, 
those  who  made  use  of  it  for  purposes  of  writing  probably 
employed  for  the  most  part  the  colloquial  rather  than  the  liter- 
ary language.  And  as  they  learned  it  in  various  places,  each 
doubtless  represents  the  particular  type  or  dialect  current  in 
the  community  from  which  he  came.  How  greatly  the  various 
colloquial  forms  of  the  Common  Dialect  differed  from  one 
another,  the  evidence  is  insufficient  fully  to  indicate.  The 
Alexandrian  influence  is  that  which  through  the  Septuagint 
(cf.  §  5)  was  of  most  importance  and  of  which  we  know 
most. 

Writers  like  Josephus  and  Philo,  who  wrote  a  literary 
Greek  nearly  or  quite  as  free  from  colloquial  influence  as 
their  non-Jewish  contemporaries,  were  enabled  to  do  so  by 
a  knowledge  of  Greek  literature  probably  quite  exceptional 
among  Jews. 

REMARK. —  Because  Greek-speaking  Jews  were  called  Hellenists,  it 
has  been  common  to  speak  of  their  language  as  Hellenistic  Greek.  So  IV., 
WS.,  Kennedy  et  al.  Deissmann,  however,  maintains  that  alike  the  general 
similarity  of  the  language  of  Jewish  and  non-Jewish  writers  of  the  same 
region  and  the  variation  of  the  Jewish  writers  among  themselves  forbid  the 
predication  of  a  Jewish-Greek  idiom  at  once  somewhat  homogeneous  and 
distinct  from  the  Greek  of  other  contemporary  writers.  Thumb,  while 
recognizing  that  the  verb  eXXyvifav  originally  referred  to  the  Greek  of 
foreigners,  and  the  noun  'E\\rjvi<TTris  to  the  Greek-speaking  Jews,  yet  regards 
all  Late  Greek  as  so  far  homogeneous  that  he  includes  under  the  one  word 
"  Hellenism  "  all  the  literary  activity  of  that  period  in  which  the  culture  of 
the  world  was  becoming  or  was  Greek,  and  employs  "  Hellenistic "  as 
synonymous  with  KOLV-T).  Deissmann  and  Blass  also  use  the  term  in  the  same 
sense.  Amid  this  diversity  in  the  usage  of  terms  the  facts  to  be  noted  are, 
on  the  one  side,  that  the  present  tendency  of  investigation  is  to  show  that 
some  usages  once  regarded  as  Hebraisms  are  in  reality  idioms  of  the  Koivr/, 
and  that  the  erection  of  Jewish-Greek  into  a  distinct  idiom  probably  exag- 
gerates the  differentiation  of  the  Greek  written  by  Jews  from  that  of  their 
contemporaries;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  most  Jewish  writers  were 
affected  by  influences  that  did  not  to  the  same  extent  affect  non-Jewish 
writers. 


i4        NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR 

5.  THE  GREEK  OF  THE  SEPTUAGINT. — The  Greek  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  commonly  known  as  the  Septuagint 
was  made  at  Alexandria,  the  translators  employing  the  Alex- 
andrian  dialect,   but   carrying  over  from   the   Hebrew   many 
peculiarities  of  that  language  which  would  not  have  appeared 
in  a  work  composed  originally  in  Greek.     This  version,  though 
not    truly    representing    a    living    language    or    dialect,    yet 
undoubtedly  exercised  in  turn  an  influence,  especially  in  the 
use  of  religious  terms,  upon  the  Greek  used  by  subsequent 
Jewish  writers. 

REMARK. — The  difference  between  the  Greek  of  a  translation  from  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Greek  used  by  one  writing  at  first  hand  in  Greek  is  illus- 
trated by  comparing  I  and  2  Maccabees  —  the  former  a  translation  of  a 
Hebrew  work,  the  latter  composed  in  Greek ;  and  still  more  strikingly  by 
comparing  the  Prologue  to  the  Book  of  Sirach  with  the  body  of  the  work, 
since  in  this  case  the  same  writer  who  translates  the  body  of  the  book  writes 
the  Prologue  in  .Greek  of  his  own  composing. 

6.  THE  GREEK  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  WRITERS. — This 
again  is,  broadly  speaking,  the  Koivrj.     Yet  respecting  it  four 
facts  should  be  borne  in  mind.    First,  like  the  Greek  of  Greek- 
speaking  Jews,  it  represents  for  the  most   part  the  colloquial 
rather    than    the    literary    language.     Secondly,    the    various 
writers  of  the  New  Testament,  acquiring  their  knowledge  of 
Greek  in  different  lands,  and  subject  in  varying  degrees  to  the 
influences  tending  to  modify  the  Common  Dialect,  differ  not  a 
little  from  one  another.     Thirdly,  all  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  are  affected  by  the  Old  Testament,  predominantly 
through    the    Septuagint,  though  some  at   least  of  the  New 
Testament  writers  also  knew  Hebrew.     The  Semitic  influence 
thus  affecting  the  New  Testament  books  is  manifest  in  different 
degrees   and  forms   in   the   different    writers.     Fourthly,    the 
vocabulary  of  all  New  Testament  writers  is  affected  to  some 
extent  by  the  distinctly  Christian  ideas  which   they  held  and 


NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR        15 

sought  to    express,   this    influence    appearing    chiefly    in    the 
meaning  which  certain  religious  terms  bear. 

7.  The  Latinisms  of  the  New  Testament  writers  are  not  due  to  the  special 
influences  to  which  these  writers  were  subject  either  as  Jews  or  as  Christians, 
nor,  probably,  to  the  KO(.VT\  in  its  literary  form,  being  rather  a  reflection  of 
the  influence  of  the   Roman  dominion  upon  the  colloquial  speech  of  the 
empire.     Of  the  nearly  thirty  Latin  words  that  occur  in  the  New  Testament, 
none  occur  in  the  Septuagint,  and  but  two  have  been  pointed  out  in  Polyb- 
ius.     Plutarch  uses  Latin  words  more  frequently  than  Polybius,  but  for  the 
most  part  not  those  employed  in  the  New  Testament. 

8.  A  comparison  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  the  Synoptic  Gos- 
pels will  illustrate  the  extent  and  character  of  the  differences  that  exist 
among  New  Testament  writers,  all  of  whom  are  subject  in  some  way  to 
Semitic  influence.     The  former,  though  affirmed  by  tradition  to  have  been 
written  originally  in  Aramaic  and  afterward  translated  into  Greek,  in   fact 
gives  clear  evidence  of  having  been  written  originally  in  Greek  by  an  author 
who  possessed  a  cpmmand  of  literary  Greek  exceptional  among  New  Testa- 
ment writers,  and  who  evinces  both  by  his  vocabulary  and  by  his  quotations 
a  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  Septuagint,  but  little  or  no  influence  of  the 
Aramaic  or  Hebrew.     Wherever  written,  the  book  evidently  in  no  small 
measure  reflects  Alexandrian  influence.     The  Synoptic  Gospels,  on  the  other 
hand,  show  a  considerable  Aramaic  influence,  which  is  suggestive  of  con- 
nection with  Palestine ;  the  precise  nature  of  this  connection  does  not  call 
for  discussion  at  this  point. 

9.  If  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  writers  is  compared  with  the 
Attic  Greek  of  Plato  or  Xenophon,  for  example,  it  is  possible  theoretically  to 
classify  the  varying  elements  by  which  the  former  is  differentiated  from  the 
latter  as  (a)  Common,  this  term  covering  the  characteristics  which  distinguish 
Later  Greek  in  general  from  that  of  the  pre-Aristotelian  period  ;  (b]  Alex- 
andrian,  to    which   might   perhaps  be    added   other   local    idioms,   if   we 
possessed  the  means  of  identifying  them;  (c]  Semitic,  including  Hebrew 
and  Aramaic;  (d]  Septuagint,  which  is  itself  a  compound  of  Hebrew  and 
Alexandrian ;  (e)  Latin. 

In  practice,  however,  it  is  impossible  perfectly  to  carry  out  such  an 
analysis.  A  grammar  of  the  Alexandrian  Dialect,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Common,  has  not  been  produced  and  is  perhaps  impossible  for  lack  of 
sufficient  data.  Even  of  the  Common  Dialect  no  complete  Grammar  has 
been  published.  Upon  the  usages  of  the  Septuagint  much  work  has  been 
done,  but  no  complete  treatise  as  yet  exists.  The  work  of  distinguishing 


1 6        NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR 

the  Semitic  elements  of  the  New  Testament  language  from  those  which  are 
Common  or  Alexandrian  is  still  in  progress. 

LITERATURE.— See  j9/.,§  2;  £.,p.  i;  W.,§§II-IV  (*FS.,§§  2-4);  HA., 
Introd.;  G.,  Introd. ;  Simcox,  The  Language  of  the  New  Testament ; 
Sophocles,  Greek  Lexicon  of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  Periods,  Introd.;  Ken- 
nedy, Sources  of  New  Testament  Greek ;  Immer,  Hermeneutics  of  the  New 
Testament  (Eng.  Tr.),  pp.  124  ff . ;  Westcott,  art.  "New  Testament,"  IV,  in 
Smith,  Diet.  Bib. ;  Donaldson,  art.  "  Greek  Language,"  in  Kitto,  Cyclo- 
pedia of  Biblical  Literature ;  Schaff,  Companion  to  the  Greek  Testament 
and  Revised  Version,  pp.  19-80;  Thayer,  art.  "Language  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament," in  Hastings,  Diet.  Bib. ;  Thumb,  Die  griechische  Sprache  im 
Zeitalterdes  Hellenismus,  especially  chap.  5;  Za/m,"Die  griechische  Sprache 
unter  den  Juden"  in  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament,  2d  ed.,  I,  pp.  24-51; 
Viteau,  Syntaxe  des  Propositions :  Le  Verbe,  pp.  iii-lxi ;  Deisstnann,  Bible 
Studies  (Eng.  tr.),pp.  63-85  ;  Deissmann,  Art.  "  Hellenistisches  Griechisch," 
in  Hauck,  Realencyclopadie,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  VII;  Ramsay,  "Greek  of  the 
Early  Church  and  Pagan  Ritual,"  Expository  Times,  Vol.  X ;  /.  H.  Moid- 
ton,  "New  Lights  on  Biblical  Greek,"  in  Biblical  World,  Vol.  XIX,  pp. 
190-96  ;  Jannaris,  Historical  Greek  Grammar,  pp.  1-20. 


B.     NEW  TESTAMENT  FORMS 

10.  The    following  sections   do   not    undertake    even    an 
approximately  complete   presentation   of  the  facts  respecting 
the  peculiarities  of  New  Testament  forms,  but  aim  only  to  call 
attention    in   a    general  way  to  some  of  the  more  important 
facts.     For  fuller  information  the  student  should  consult  the 
lexicons  and  grammars,  especially    WS.,  §§  5-16,  pp.  31-44, 
and  Th.  under  particular  words. 

WRITING  AND  SOUND  (B.,  pp.  5-11  ;   W.,  §§  V-VIl;  BL,  §§  3-6) 

11.  In  all  the  matters  pertaining  to  the  alphabet,  contrac- 
tion, elision,  accent,  etc.,  the  rules  given  in  the  classical  gram 
mars  hold  also  in  general  respecting  the  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament.     The  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament,  however,  like 
those  of  Greek  authors,   exhibit  no   little  variation,  and   the 
editor  of    the  New  Testament  text  must  often  make    choice 
among  conflicting  authorities.     The   following  points  may  be 
mentioned  : 

12.  Through  the  influence  of  Itacism,  /.  e.t  the  practice  of 
giving  the  sound  of  iota  (i)  to  rj  and  v  and  to  the  diphthongs 
ei,  y,  01  and  vt,  the  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament  exhibit  various 
interchanges  of  vowels,  of  which  one  of  the  most  frequent  is 
that  of  ei  and  t.     See,  e.  g.,  ctSea  for  tSe'a,  Matt.  28 :  3. 

13.  Respecting  terminal  letters  the  usual  Greek  rules  hold 
except  in  the  case  of  foreign  names  introduced  without  assimi- 
lation.    Cf.  §  22. 

14.  MSS.  and  editors  vary  greatly  respecting  the  addition 
of  v  movable.      Tisch.,  following    the    usual    practice  of    the 

•  MSS.,  generally  retains  it  before  both  vowels  and  consonants, 
but  occasionally  omits  it  before  a  consonant  on  MS.  authority, 
in  nearly  all  the  latter  cases  following  the  reading  of  a  group 

17 


1 8        NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR 

including  J$-  See  Greg.,  Part  I,  pp.  97  /.  WH.  omit  it 
wherever  the  omission  is  vouched  for  by  either  Codex  Sinaiti- 
cus  (Jfc)  or  Vaticanus  (B),  supported  by  either  Codex  Alexan- 
drinus  (A)  or  Codex  Ephraemi  Syri  rescriptus  (C). 

Nearly  the  same  statement  may  be  made  respecting  the  s 
of  OUTCDS.  Mexpts  and  a^pis,  on  the  other  hand,  generally  con- 
form to  the  usual  rule. 

15.  *Ev€Ka  occurs  before  a  consonant  only  :  CI/CKO/  and  tiveKtv 
stand  before  either  a  vowel  or  a  consonant.     See  B.,  p.  10,  and 
ff.  BL,  p.  20. 

1 6.  Most  words  which  in  earlier  Attic  were  written  with  o-<r, 
in  later  Attic  with  TT,  have  in  the  New  Testament  era-. 

The  combination  pp  is  used  interchangeably  with  pa: 

17.  Rough  mutes  are  found  standing  before  words  which, 
in  classical  Greek  at  least,  usually  had  a  smooth  breathing. 
See  e.  g.,  Rom.  8  :  20,  e<£  cA.7ri8i,  which  Tisch.  writes  e<£'  Airi'St, 
but  WH.,  €<£'  cAirt'Si;  Phil.  2  :  23,  d<£ioV     See  B.,  p.  7;  BL  p.  15. 

The  MSS.  frequently  give  00  instead  of  r6  which  the  gram- 
marians prescribe.  Later  editors  incline  to  follow  the  MSS. 

1 8.  The  rule  that  "v  before  a  labial  becomes  /x,  before  a 
palatal  becomes  y-nasal,  before  A,  p  is  assimilated,  before  or  is 
dropped,"  is  not  followed  at  all  uniformly  in  MSS.  of  the  New 
Testament  in  words  compounded  with  o-w  and  h.     Such  forms 
as  (rvvoT/xxTiw'nygj  crvvKaXeu),  etc.,  are  found  in  the  MSS.  and 
adopted  by  recent  editors.     Cases  of  assimilation,  however,  as 
in  o-vXXa/x/?avw,  also  occur. 

19.  Crasis  and  elision  occur  in  the  New  Testament,  but 
much  less  frequently  than  in  the  MSS.  of  classical  writers. 

20.  The    whole    matter    of    punctuation,    breathing,    and 
accentuation,  including  accent  of  enclitics  and  proclitics,  is 
one  of  editorship  rather  than  of  manuscript  authority,  since 
the  oldest  MSS.  are  written  without  accents.     Modern  critics 
follow  in  general  the  rules  of  the  ancient  grammarians.     See 
detailed  discussion  in  W.,  §§  VI,  VII  ;  BL,  pp.  13-17. 


NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR        19 

DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS  (A,  pp.  11-25;  W.,  §§VIII,  IX  ;  Bl.,  §§  7-10) 

21.  There  is  no  dual  number  in  the  New  Testament. 

22.  Foreign  proper  names  which  on  being  transferred  into 
Greek  undergo  no   change   of  form   are  not   declined,  e.  g., 
'lept^w   (Matt.    20:29;  Mark    10:46),  Bcvta/xiV  (Acts  13:21). 
See  other  examples,  B.,  pp.  15-19.     Those  which  on  being 
transferred  into  Greek  change  their  form  are  declined  accord- 
ing  to  Greek  analogy,  e.  g.,  2tS<ov,   SiSwvos  ;    ^At^,  S^AIKOS. 
Some  nouns  have  both  a  declinable  and  indeclinable  form  : 
thus  Mapia/x,  or  Mapt'a,  Mapt'as.     The  declension  of  Mcovcn/s  is 
as  follows  :    N.   Mwucnjs,   G.  Mtouo-etoSj  D.  Mcovtret  or  M<ou<ny,  A. 
Mtovcrea  or  Mcovtri/v.       See  Bl.,  p.  29. 

23.  Some  foreign  names  ending  in   -as,  -T/S,   -cos,   -ovs  are 
declined  according  to  a  special  declension  called  the  weak  or 
mixed  declension.     The  following  is  the  table  of  terminations 
as  given  by  B.,  p.  19  : 


N. 

as 

775 

cos 

ovs 

G. 

a 

77 

(0 

ov 

D. 

a 

V 

<i> 

ov 

A. 

ov 

r)V 

cov 

ovv 

V. 

a 

V 

CO 

ov 

Examples  in  as  are  especially  numerous,     'l^o-ovs  is  the  only 
instance  in  ous.     See  also  BL,  p.  31. 

24.  Jewish  names  of  festivals  usually  have  the  plural  form  ; 
e.g.,  TO.  a£vfj.a  (Mark    14  :  i).     The  word  crdpfiaTov  is  used  in 
both  numbers  with  the  sense  of  the  singular.     The  usual  dative 
plural   is  o-a^acrtv,  as  if  from   the  third   declension.     B.,  pp. 
23,  24. 

25.  Some  words  fluctuate  between  the  masculine  and  neuter 
genders  or  between  different  declensions.     This  is  called  meta- 
plasm.     See  BL,  p.  28,  and  WS.,  §  8:  12. 


20        NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR 

DECLENSION  OF  PRONOUNS  (B.,  pp.  31,  32  ;  ^/.,§I3) 

26.  The  simple  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person  singu- 
lar and  plural,  ov,  ol,  etc.,  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Testament. 

27.  The  interrogative  pronoun  Trorepos  does  not  occur  in 
the  New  Testament,  n's  being  used  instead. 

CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS  (B.t  pp.  32-53;    W.,  §§XII-XV; 
Bl.t  §§  14-23) 

28.  The    syllabic    augment    of    the    pluperfect    is    usually 
omitted.     Thus,  TreTrotTJ/ceio-ai/,  Mark  15:7;  cf.  15  :  10. 

29.  Double  augmentation  in  compound  verbs  occurs  in  the 
New  Testament  as  in  other  Greek  writers.     Thus,  aTreKareoTatfr;, 
Mark  3:5;  ^vew'x^o-av,  John  9:10  (cf.  Luke  i  :  64). 

30.  McAAa>  and  Swa/xat  frequently  have  the  augment  rj  as  in 
late  Attic  writers.     See  Mark  6  :  19  ;  John  4  :  47. 

31.  Instances  of  a  second  aorist  with  a  are  not  infrequent; 
e.g.,  ijAtfa/xei/  (Acts  21:8),  efSav  (Matt.  13  :  17),  evpa/xo/og  (Heb. 
9:12),  etc.     These   forms   are   sometimes  called  Alexandrian 
aorists.    They  are,  however,  entirely  similar  to  the  forms  yjveyKa 
and  el?™  used  by  Attic  writers.     Regular  second  aorist  forms 
from  the  same  stems  occur  side  by  side  with  the  "  Alexandrian  " 
forms.      WS.j  §  13:  13. 

A  similarly  formed  imperfect  of  the  verb  *x<a>  (^xav)  occurs 
in  a  few  passages.    See  Mark  8:7.    See  JBL,  p.  46  ;  WS.,  §13:13. 

32.  The  termination  -o-av  instead  of  -v  for  the  third  person 
plural,  which  occurs  frequently  in  the  Septuagint  in  second 
aorist  forms,  occurs  in  the  New  Testament  very  rarely.     See 
2  Thess.   3:6,    WH.,  marg.     In  John    15:22,   24,  occurs  the 
imperfect  form  et'xoo-ai/,  these  two  instances  being  quite  without 
parallel  elsewhere. 

33.  The  third  person  plural  of  the  perfect  indicative  active 
sometimes  ends  in  -av  instead  of  -ao-t.     See  John  17:7,  eyvw/cav. 

34.  Several    verbs    which    in    classical    Greek    are    of    the 


NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR        21 

/mi-inflection  have  forms  of  the  w-inflection  in  use  in  the  New 
Testament  side  by  side  with  the  regular  /u-forms.  In  some 
instances  the  stem  is  at  the  same  time  modified,  in  others  it 
remains  unchanged.  Hence  arise  such  forms  as  UTTCU/W,  Sei/o/uets, 
o/xfueiv,  81801,  Sot  (the  two  latter  not  opt.,  but  subj.,  as  if  from 
8iS6a>),  and  yvol  (subj.).  Peculiarly  complex  are  the  various 
forms  of  ?»7/zi.  See  B.,  pp.  45-51  ;  BL,  pp.  48-52. 


C.  NEW  TESTAMENT  SYNTAX 
THE  GENERAL  CHARACTER    OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  SYNTAX 

35.  What  has  already  been  said  in  general  about  the 
language  of  the  New  Testament  writers  applies  also  to  the 
Syntax.  Broadly  speaking,  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament 
follow  the  syntactical  usages  of  the  Koivrj,  but  in  syntax  as  in 
other  respects  are  affected  to  a  certain  extent  by  those  special 
influences  already  named  to  which  they  were  in  varying 
degrees  subject.  Cf.  §§  6-9.  The  divergence  of  their  lan- 
guage from  that  of  classical  writers  in  respect  to  syntax  is 
greater  than  in  reference  to  forms  of  words,  and  less  than  in 
respect  to  the  meanings  of  words,  both  the  Jewish  and  the 
Christian  influence  affecting  more  deeply  the  meanings  of 
words  than  either  their  form  or  their  syntactical  employment. 
As  respects  the  variations  of  New  Testament  writers  among 
themselves,  this  is  probably  greater  in  syntax  than  in  any 
other  respect.  Yet  in  the  great  majority  of  syntactical  usages 
they  agree,  and  the  student  of  syntax  finds  no  difficulty  in 
framing  statements  of  New  Testament  usage  in  general,  which 
only  occasionally  require  qualifying  statements  covering  the 
usage  of  particular  writers. 


REMARK. —  It  should  be  clearly  recognized  that  departure  from  clas- 
sical standards  does  not  imply  capriciousness  or  lack  of  established  usage. 
Late  Greek  is  not  classical  Greek,  as  the  Greek  of  Plato  is  not  that  of 
Homer.  But  Late  Greek  in  general,  and  New  Testament  Greek  in  particu- 
lar, have  recognized  usages  which  are  as  reducible  to  definite  statement  as 
those  of  Plato  or  Homer. 


NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR        23 

SYNTAX  OF  THE  ARTICLE 
GENERAL  RULES 

36.  The  use  of  the  article  and  the  effect  of  its  omission  are 
substantially  the  same  in  the  New  Testament  as  in  classical 
Greek. 

a)  The  article  is  in  general  either  (i)  Restrictive  (demon- 
strative), or  (2)  Generic. 

b}  Nouns  without  the  article  are  either  (i)  Indefinite,  or  (2) 
Qualitative  (adjectival). 

COMMON    NOUNS 

37.  With  common  and  class  nouns  the  restrictive  article 
may  designate  the  object  which  it  denotes,  as 

a)  Identified  by  the  context  (Mark  2  :  5),  or 
I))  The  well-known  bearer  of  the  name,  the  one  to  whom 
it  belongs  by  pre-eminence  (John  15  :  26). 

REMARK. — It  should  be  distinctly  observed  that  the  article  does  not 
itself  identify  the  object  referred  to,  but  only  indicates  that  the  noun  refers  to 
a  person  or  thing  which  is  identified  by  the  context  or  otherwise.  A  noun 
which,  even  with  the  article,  itself  identifies  its  object  is  virtually  a  proper 
noun. 

38.  With  common  and  class  nouns  the  generic  article  may 
designate, 

a)  The  whole  class  conceived  of  as  a  unity  (Mark  2  127),  or 

b)  Any  member  whatever  of  the  class  (Acts  10  :  35). 

39.  Common  nouns  without  the  article  are  either 

a)  Indefinite,   when    the    word    designates    the    object    as 
belonging  to  the  class  indicated  (i  Cor.  9:  i,  aTrooroXos ) ,  or 

b)  Qualitative,  when  it  characterizes  the  object  as  possessing 
the  attributes  denoted  by  the  noun  (Eph.  5  :  23). 

REMARK  i. — The  indefinite  force  always  involves  the  qualitative  more 
or  less  distinctly,  since  to  assign  an  object  to  a  class  is  to  attribute  to  it  the 
qualities  which  are  the  mark  of  the  class.  The  qualitative  force,  on  the 


24        NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR 

other  hand,  does  not  necessarily  involve  the  indefinite,  since  the  qualities 
denoted  by  a  noun  may  be  attributed  to  an  object  without  thought  of  any 
other  members  of  the  class,  or  even  when  there  are  no  other  members. 

REMARK  2. — A  noun  in  the  predicate,  since  in  the  nature  of  the  case 
it  is  commonly  indefinite  or  qualitative,  is  most  frequently  without  the 
article.  This  is  probably  all  the  truth  there  is  in  the  rule  that  predicate 
nouns  do  not  take  the  article.  A  noun  in  the  predicate  referring  specifically 
to  an  individual  as  such  takes  the  article.  Mark  8:29;  John  3  :  10;  9:20. 

PROPER    NAMES 

40.  With  proper  names  the  article  is  always  restrictive,  the 
generic  use  being  in  the  nature  of  the  case  impossible. 

41.  With  names  of  persons  the  article  designates  the  per- 
son as 

a)  The  person  of  this  name  indicated  in  the  context,  espe- 
cially if  previously  named  (Gal.  3:8;  cf.  vs.  7),  or 

I)}  The  well-known  person  of  this  name  (John  9  :  28). 

42.  In  general,  a  personal  name  without  the  article  simply 
names  the  person  as  one  bearing  that  name.     Yet  since  a  per- 
sonal name  is  itself  relatively  definite,  the  article  is  much  more 
easily  omitted  than  in  the  case  of  a  common  noun.      Whether 
it  shall  be  used  or  omitted  is  often  a  matter  of  choice  on  grounds 
slight  in  themselves  and  difficult  to  detect.      In  case  of  inde- 
clinable names  the  necessity  of  marking  the  case  is  sometimes 
influential. 

43.  Names  of  countries,  islands,  and  rivers,  being  in  most 
cases    originally  adjective    in    character,  commonly  have  the 
article.     Names  of  cities  usually  omit  it.     Yet  individual  terms 
have  to  some  extent  their  own  usage. 

APPELLATIVES 

44.  The  article  with  appellatives  approximating  to  proper 
names,  such  as  0cos,  *upios,  xpto-rog,  etc.,  is  usually  restrictive, 
designating  the  well-known  bearer  of  the  title.     The  title  is 


NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR        25 

used  either  in  a  purely  official  sense,  not  conveying  in  itself 
any  implication  as  to  the  personal  identity  of  the  bearer  of  the 
name  (Matt.  2:4;  22  :  42);  or  with  tacit  implication  respecting 
personal  identity  (Matt.  11:2);  or  finally  almost  as  a  personal 
name,  the  appellative  force  being  lost  sight  of  or  receding  into 
the  background  (i  Cor.  1:13). 

45.  Appellatives  without  the  article  are 

a)  Indefinite,  marking  the  person  as  belonging  to  the  class 
denoted  by  the  noun  (i  Cor.  8  15),  or 

^)  Qualitative,  attributing  to  the  person  referred  to  the 
attributes,  relations,  etc.,  which  the  name  expresses  (Rom. 
10:9),  or 

c]  Definite,  after  the  analogy  of  true  proper  names.  Thus 
Ku'ptos,  standing  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Old  Testament 
Jehovah,  is  usually  without  the  article  in  all  constructions ; 
and  X/OKTTOS  often  occurs  without  the  article  as  a  name  for 
Jesus.  But  in  this  matter  the  usage  of  every  such  word  must 
be  determined  for  itself. 

REMARK. — In  compound  appellatives,  i.  <?.,  appellatives  consisting  of  a 
noun  limited  by  another  noun,  it  is  usually  the  case  that  both  nouns  have 
the  article  or  both  omit  it  (Mark  2 :  28  ;  John  5  :  27  ;  Rom.i  :  4  ;  Mark  3:11). 

ABSTRACT  AND  VERBAL  NOUNS 

46.  With  abstract  and  verbal  nouns  the  restrictive  article 
may  be  used  to  designate  the  quality  or  action,  as 

a]  The  instance  identified  by  the  context  (Gal.  5  :  13),  or 

b)  The  pre-eminent  and  well-known  instance  (Rom.  9:4). 

47.  With    abstract  and  verbal    nouns   the   generic   article 
makes  the  noun  refer  to  the  quality  or  action  as  such  (i  Cor. 
13:4;  Rom.  5  :  12). 

48.  Abstract  and  verbal  nouns  without  the  article  may  be 
a)  Indefinite,  when  the  word  designates  the  act  or  quality 

referred  to  as  belonging  to  the  class  of  acts  or  qualities 
denoted  by  the  noun  (i  John  5:16,  afJLapriav,  a/xaprta;  Rom. 


26        NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR 

8:240).    Verbal   nouns  in   the   plural  without  the  article  are 
always  indefinite. 

<£)  Qualitative,  when  they  merely  characterize  that  which  is 
referred  to  as  having  the  quality  denoted  by  the  noun  (Matt. 
21:32;  Rom.  8:  24^). 

NOUNS  IN  FIXED  PHRASES 

49.  In  general  phrases  and  standing  formulas,  especially 
in  those  consisting  of  a  preposition  and  its  object,  the  article 
is  frequently  omitted,  even  when  the  noun  is  quite  definite  in 
its  reference,  and  in  many  other  cases  where  fhe  noun,  though 
in  reality  indefinite,  requires  the  definite  article  in   English. 
The  usage  of  each  word  and  phrase,  however,  requires  to  be 
separately   determined.      (Luke    13:29;    Matt.   27:45;    Luke 
11:50;  Acts  5:41-) 

POSITION 

50.  The  classical  rule  that  when  the  article  and  an  attribu- 
tive belong  together  to  a  substantive,  the  attributive  always 
stands  in   attributive   position,  /.  e.,  between  the  article  and 
noun,  or  after  the  article  following  the  noun,  holds  good  in 
the  New  Testament  when  the  attributive  is  an  adjective  or  par- 
ticiple.     Thus  TO  ayioi/  Trvev/xa,  or  TO  Trvev/xa  TO  aytov. 

But  when  the  attributive  is  a  preposition  and  its  object,  or 
an  adverb,  it  may  stand  either  in  attributive  or  (as  occasionally 
in  classical  writers)  in  predicative  position.  Thus  6  Seoyuos  ei/ 


When  the  attributive  is  a  genitive,  it  may,  as  in  classical 
writers,  stand  in  either  position.  Cf.  §  54,  e),  and  B.  MT.  427. 

THE  ARTICLE  AS  DEMONSTRATIVE 

51.  The  article  is  used  as  a  demonstrative  in  the  New 
Testament  only  in  the  phrases  6  fteV,  6  8e,  and  in  these  only  in 
the  four  forms  6,  17,  oi,  at.  Elsewhere,  /.  e.,  in  the  neuter  nomi- 


NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR        27 

native  and  in  all  the  oblique  cases,  the  forms  of  the  relative 
take  the  place  of  the  article.  Thus  we  have  o>  8e,  oV  8e,  ov?  8c, 
instead  of  roJ  Se,  rov  Se,  TOVS  8e.  Even  in  the  nominative  os 
sometimes  appears.  This  use  of  the  relative  pronoun  is  found 
as  early  as  Demosthenes,  but  only  in  oblique  cases.  HA.,  654,  d. 

SYNTAX  OF  PRONOUNS  (#.,  pp.  103-21;  W.,  §§  XXI-XXV) 

52.  The  pronoun  euro's  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence  in 
the  New  Testament.  It  has  four  uses: 

a)  As  in  classical  Greek,  preceded  by  the  article  and  mean- 
ing "the  same":     6  airros  Kv'pios,  the  same  Lord. 

b)  As  in  classical  Greek,  in  predicative  position,  as  an  in- 
tensive, meaning  "self":     cdrros  6  /cvptos,  the  Lord  himself. 

In  pnrases  of  time  Luke  uses  avro?  before  the  article  with 
nearly  the  force  of  a  slightly  emphatic  eVetvo?  or  OVTOS.  Luke 
2:38,  avrfj  rfj  a>pa,  at  that  very  hour.  See  also  Luke  10:21; 
Acts  16:18;  cf.  Th.,  s.  v.  I.  2,  c. 

f)  As  a  simple  personal  pronoun.  This  also  is  classical 
usage,  but  is  extended  in  the  New  Testament  in  two  directions. 
First,  it  occurs  not  only  in  oblique  cases,  as  in  classical  writers, 
but  also  in  the  nominative,  where  classical  Greek  would  use 
OUTOS  or  o8e,  or  would  omit  the  pronoun  altogether  (Mark  8:  29; 
Luke  1:22;  £.,  p.  107.  Contra,  IV.,  §  XXII,  4  (£),  Rem.). 
Secondly,  the  redundant  use  of  the  pronoun,  repeating  what 
has  already  been  expressed  by  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  phrase,  is 
more  common  than  in  classical  writers,  doubtless  under  the 
influence  of  the  Hebrew  idiom  (Matt.  8:23;  25:29;  Mark  1:7; 
Rev.  2:7;  cf.  W.,  §XXII,  4). 

d)  As  equivalent  to  the  reflexive.  In  the  New  Testament 
this  usage  is  more  frequent  than  in  classical  Greek  (Matt.  1:21; 
Mark  3:9;  Luke  9:24,  and  very  often). 

53.   Reflexive  Pronouns. 

a]  Reflexive  pronouns,  when  used,  conform  to  classical 
usage.  But  simple  personal  pronouns  are  often  used  instead 


28        NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR 

of  the  reflexives.  This  occurs  in  classical  Greek,  but  not  so 
frequently  as  in  the  New  Testament.  Cf.  52,  d],  above,  and 
see  HA.,  684. 

b]  Respecting  the  forms  avrov,  avrw,  etc.  (without  breath- 
ings in  the  older  MSS.;  hence  ambiguous)  there  is  still  differ- 
ence of  opinion.    The  Textus  Receptus  gave  many  of  them  the 
rough  breathing,  thus  making  them  shortened  reflexives— avrov, 
etc.    Most  of  the  more  recent  editors  and  text  critics  have  given 
them  all,  or  very  nearly  all,  the  smooth  breathing,  making  them 
simple    personal    pronouns — avrov,    etc. —  though    falling    in 
many  cases  under  the  preceding  rule  of   personal   pronouns 
used   for  the  reflexive.     See  the  reasons  for  this  course,  B., 
p.  in.     The  result  of  this,  of  course,  is  to  make  the  reflexive 
appear   in    the   New    Testament    only   in   the  longer  form  — 
kavrov,    eavro),    etc.       WH.    have    in    about    twenty    instances 
given    these   forms — avrov,   avrw,  etc. —  the  rough  breathing, 
thus  returning  in  part  to  the  usage  of  the  Textus  Receptus. 
See    WH.,    Vol.    II,  Appendix,  pp.  143,  144;    and  cf.  Luke 
12:17,  21;   John   2:24,  13:32;   Rom.  1:27;   2  Cor.   3:5;  Eph. 
2:15;   i  John  5:10,  in  Tisch.  and  WH.     See  also  W.,  §  XXII, 

5,* 

c]  The  form  tavrov  is  generally,  but  not  always,  in  the  New 
Testament    an   emphatic  reflexive.      Emphatic,    Matt.    16:24; 
18:4;     i  Cor.  13:5,    etc.;    unemphatic,    Mark    8:14;     Luke 
19:  13;  Rev.  10:3,  etc. 

d]  The    reflexive    of    the   third    person    plural,   ecumov,   is 
regularly  used  in   the  New  Testament   for  all   three   persons. 
About  seventy  instances  of  its  use  for  the  first  or  second  per- 
son occur.     See,  e.  g.,  Matt.  3:9;   23:31;  Luke  12:57;  Rom. 
8:23;   15:1;  i  Cor.  11:31;  etc.     When  so  used  it  is  almost 
always  emphatic. 

54.  Possessive  Pronouns  and  Possessive  Genitives. 
a)  Possessive  limitations  are  much  more  frequent  in  the 
New  Testament  than  in  classical  Greek. 


NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR        29 

b)  Possessive   pronouns   are  used   less   frequently  than   in 
classical  Greek,  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronoun  being 
used  instead. 

c)  "iSios  is  used  as  an  emphatic  possessive  instead  of  eoumn) 
or  the  possessive  with  avrds  (John  4  :  44). 

d)  The  article  is  sometimes  omitted  with  possessive  limita- 
tions  where    classical    Greek   would   require   it   (Luke  2:32; 
James  i :  26,  etc.). 

e)  When  the  article  occurs,  the  position  of  the  pronoun  is 
in  general  regular,  viz.,  the  personal  pronoun  stands  in  predi- 
cative  position   (yet   occasionally,   mostly   in   the    epistles,   it 
stands  in    attributive    position);    reflexives    usually    stand    in 
attributive  position  (Luke  11:21;   13:34;  Matt.  8:22:  contra, 
Matt.  18:31;  25:1);  possessives  invariably  so. 

SYNTAX  OF  THE  CASES 

55.  The  use  of  the  cases  is  nearly  the  same  in  New  Testa- 
ment as  in  classical  Greek.     The  following  matters  require  to 
be  specially  noted  in  the  study  of  New  Testament  Greek : 

56.  The   Nominative   is   frequently  used    as   the   case    of 
address  in  the  New  Testament,  usually  with  the  article  (Matt. 
1 1 :  26  ;  James  5:1;    i  Cor.  15  :  36  ;  cf.  B.,  p.  140). 

57.  The  Genitive  of  Designation,  denoting  the  same  object 
as  that  which  is  denoted  by  the  noun  it  limits,  chiefly  poetic 
in  classical  writers,  is  not  uncommon  in  the  New  Testament 
(John  2:21;  Acts  1 6  : 14;   Heb.  12:11). 

58.  The  Genitive  of  Characteristic  (sometimes  called  quali- 
tative), which  scarcely  occurs  at  all  in  classical  authors,  is  not 
infrequent  in  the  New  Testament  (Matt.   21:32;   Luke  16:8). 
It  is  probably  of  Hebraistic  origin,  though  a  nearly  similar 
idiom  is  found  also  in  Latin. 

59.  The  Genitive  limiting  a  noun  is  often  used  in  the  New 
Testament  to  indicate  a  relationship  between  the  two   objects 
of  so  general  a  character  that  it  cannot  be  assigned  to  any  of 


3o        NOTES  ON  NEW  TESTAMENT  GRAMMAR 

the  usual  genitive  relations.  Such  instances  may  be  classed 
under  the  general  head  of  Genitive  of  Connection  (Matt.  1:17; 
Mark  1 :  4,  /xeravotas  ;  John  7:35). 

60.  The  Dative  of  Time  is  sometimes  used  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament to  denote,  not  point  of  time,  but  duration  (Luke  8:27; 
Acts  8  :  1 1 ;  Acts  13  :  20). 

61.  Prepositional   constructions  are  very  frequent  in  the 
New  Testament,  often  occurring  when   classical   Greek  would 
employ  a  case  only.     Some  of  the  most  common  constructions 
are  illustrated  in  the  following  examples :  Acts  13:22;  Matt. 
21 :  46  ;  Acts  2:16;  John  2:11;  16  :  8. 

THE  VOICE  OF  THE  VERB 

62.  The  Aorist  Passive  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of 
the  Middle.     This  occurs  in  the  New  Testament  much  more 
frequently  than  in  classical  writers  (Mark  5:21;   Matt.  2:21; 
James  4 :  7). 

63.  Certain  tenses  of  deponent  verbs  are  sometimes  used 
in  a  passive  sense  (Matt.  6  :  i ;  Mark  5  :  29;  Rom.  4 :  4,  5  ;  cf. 
vss.  6,  8).     See  B.,  p.  52.. 


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